Footnotes
  1. See Glassl, Einrichtungswerk in Galizien; Häusler, Galizisches Judentum 1772 - 1848, pp.5-8.

    2.   
  2. See Hense, Regionalismus - internen Kolonialismus?, p.168s.; also see Reinhard Kreckel et al., Regionalistische Bewegungen in Westeuropa. Zum Struktur- und Wertewandel in fortgeschrittenen Industriestaaten, Opladen 1986.

    3.   
  3. See Blaschke, Volk, Nation, pp. 125-168; 260-279.

    4.    
  4. Szysko- Bohusz, Lemberg, p.1.

    5.    
  5. Brünner Zeitung , 20. June 1788, cited in Häusler, Galizisches Judentum, p. 40.

    6.    
  6. Cited in Klariska, Lemberg, p.10.

    7.    
  7. See Stourzh, Juden Altösterreichs, pp. 88-91.

    8.    
  8. Balaban cited in Holzer, Jüdisches Leben, p.80.

    9.    
  9. Leo Herzberg-Fränkl, Die Juden, p. 478.

    10.    
  10. See Dabrowa, Kultur in Galizien, p. 223.

    11.    
  11. Klariska, Lemberg, p.12.

    12.    
  12. See Nossig, Jan Prorok, p. 108.

    13.    
  13. Herzberg- Fränkl, Die Juden, pp.478ff.

    14.    
  14. Pliwa, Universitäten, p.29.

    15.    
  15. See Demographie der Juden Vol. 12, p.3.

    16.    
  16. For examples, see Stenographische Protokolle 1911, XXI. Session, p. 5183.

    17.    
  17. See Holzer, Jüdisches Leben, p. 84.

    18.    
  18. See Biderman, Majer Balaban, p.77; Bunzl, Jüdische Arbeiterbewegung, pp. 119-131.

    19.    
  19. See John, Jüdische Bevölkerung, pp. 204ff.

    20.    
  20. Statistisches Jahrbuch 1912, p. 898.

    21.    
  21. See Hödl, Lower East Side, pp. 41ff.

    22.    
  22. See Hoffmann-Holter, Jüdische Kriegsflüchtlinge.

    23.    
  23. See Holzer, Jüdische Leben, p. 83.

    24.    
  24. See John, Multikulturalität, pp.197-208. 

    25.    
  25. See Stourzh, Juden als Nationalität, pp. 74 - 79.

    26.    
  26. See Stenographische Protokolle 1906, XVII. Session, pp. 36882 - 36885. 

    27.    
  27. See Roos, Polnische Nation 1918 - 1978, pp.136ff.

    28.    
  28. See Maly Rocznik, p.24.

    29.    
  29. Friesel, Jewish History, p.92-93; Österreichische Statistik, NF Vol. 1, Heft 1, pp. 80-81.

    30.    
  30. See Holzer, Jüdisches Leben, p. 86-87.

    31.    
  31. Kreppel, Juden, p. 315.

    32.    
  32. See Hermann Sternberg, Zur Geschichte der Juden in Czernowitz, in: Gold, Geschichte der Juden in der Bukowina 2, pp 27 - 47.

    33.    
  33. Karniel, Die Toleranzpolitik Kaiser Josephs II., p. 437 f.

    34.    
  34. See Gold, Geschichte der Juden in der Bukowina 2, p. 153: "And nevertheless, this 'German' character of Bukovina could only be artificially maintained with the help of the Jews, because they gave their mother tongue [this was actually language of everyday use] as ‘German.’"

    35.    
  35. Taken from a handwritten outline from the Estate of Karl Emil Franzos in the Manuscript Department of the Library of the City and Province of Vienna, cited in Wichner/ Wiesner, In der Sprache der Mörder, S. 31. "Ruthenian" was the accepted designation for "Ukrainian" in the Hapsburg Monarchy; after 1918, the concept survived to refer to Ukrainians who were favorably disposed to the Hapsburgs.

    36.    
  36. Karl Emil Franzos, Die Geschichte des Erstlingswerkes. Selbstbiographische Aufsätze, Leipzig o.J. [1894], p. 230; also see Mayer, Galizische und bukowinische Juden in Wien, p. 37.

    37.    
  37. Only Silesia with German, Polish and Bohemian-Moravian-Slovakian, as well as Istria with Serbo-Croatian. Italian-Ladin and Slovenian had a tripartite linguistic configuration similar to Bukovina.

    38.    
  38. Brix, Die Umgangssprachen, pp. 382 ff.

    39.    
  39. See Anuarul statstic al Romaniei 1930, Bukarest 1932.

    40.    
  40. Armbruster, Vom Moldauwappen zum Doppeladler, p. 86.

    41.    
  41. The Yiddish poet Josef Burg, born in 1912 in Wischnitz, recounts that, from his earliest childhood, he grew up speaking five languages. From an interview with him conducted in Salzburg February 15, 1996 by Albert Lichtblau.

    42.    
  42. Burger, Mehrsprachigkeit, p. 99.

    43.    
  43. Wandruszka/ Urbanitsch, Die Habsburgermonarchie, p. 77.

    44.    
  44. Also see Berthold Windt, Die Juden an den Mittel- und Hochschulen Oesterreichs seit 1850, in: Statistische Monatsschrift, 1881, pp. 442- 457; Jakob Thon, Anteil der Juden am Hochschulstudium in Oesterreich seit dem Jahre 1851, in: Zeitschrift für Demographie und Statistik der Juden, März 1907, pp. 33 ff; 

    45.    
  45. Also in the lyceums for girls which were then increasingly popular in Bukovina, 51.6% [707] of the students were Jewish. This was, once again, the highest proportion of all crown lands. See Österreichische Statistik, NF, vol. 17, 3. Heft, Vienna 1919, p. 60 f.

    46.    
  46. Lichtblau/ Jahn, Prive Friedjung, p. 67.

    47.    
  47. Leslie, Der Ausgleich in der Bukowina, p. 129.

    48.    
  48. For the Austrian half of the Monarchy, the Disparity Index of Jews and non-Jews with respect to economic classes according to the census of 1910 was 45.05.

    49.    
  49. For the Austrian half of the Monarchy, the Disparity Index of Jews and non-Jews with respect to occupational groups according to the census of 1910 was 28.05

    50.    
  50. Wichner/ Wieser, In der Sprache der Mörder, p. 51.

    51.    
  51. See, for instance, Gold, Geschichte der Juden in der Bukowina 2, p. 33.

    52.    
  52. STPO XVII. Session, Meeting of March 13, 1906, p. 35.112.

    53.    
  53. According to the 1910 census, 7,420 Jewish members of the workforce representing 18.4% of all Jews employed were laborers. The percentage in Galicia was 15.5% and was slightly higher in the capital Vienna with 21.3%. Also see Gold, Geschichte der Juden in der Bukowina 2, p. 35 f.

    54.    
  54. Gold, Geschichte der Juden in der Bukowina 1, p. 57.

    55.    
  55. Gold, Geschichte der Juden in der Bukowina 1, p. 51 and 77 ff.; Broszat, Von der Kulturnation zur Volksgruppe, p. 583.

    56.    
  56. Gold, Geschichte der Juden in der Bukowina 1, p. 59; Broszat, Von der Kulturnation zur Volksgruppe, pp. 548 f.

    57.    
  57. Broszat, Von der Kulturnation zur Volksgruppe, p. 580.

    58.    
  58. See, for example,. Gold, Geschichte der Juden in der Bukowina 1, p. 60.

    59.    
  59. Gaisbauer, Davidstern und Doppeladler, pp. 479 ff.

    60.    
  60. Gaisbauer, Davidstern und Doppeladler, pp 511 ff.

    61.    
  61. On the subject of Bloch, see, for instance, Wistrich, The Jews of Vienna, pp. 270 ff.

    62.    
  62. STPO, XVII. Session, Meeting of March 13, 1906, p. 35.113.

    63.    
  63. See, for example, Seewann, Zirkel und Zionsstern, pp. 169 ff.

    64.    
  64. Broszat, Von der Kulturnation zur Volksgruppe, p. 591.

    65.    
  65. Leon Arie Schmelzer, Geschichte des Zionismus in der Bukowina in der Bukowina, in: Gold, Geschichte der Juden in der Bukowina 1, p. 93.

    66.    
  66. See the works of Gerald Stourzh.

    67.    
  67. See Leslie, Der Ausgleich in der Bukowina, p. 129.

    68.    
  68. Leslie, Der Ausgleich in der Bukowina, p. 134 ff.

    69.    
  69. STPO XVII. Session, Meeting of March 13, 1906, p. 35.113.

    70.    
  70. Harnik, Erinerungen an die Flucht, p. 1 f.

    71.    
  71. Die Bukowina, p. 183.

    72.    
  72. Polek, Statistik des Judentums in der Bukowin, p. 259.

    73.    
  73. A reference to Karl Emil Franzos, "Aus Halb-Asien." Benno Straucher took issue with this label in a polemic in Parliament: "... certain semi-asiatic conditions are said to exist in Bukovina, but this is most unfair." STPO XVII. Session, Meeting of March 13, 1906, p. 35.107.

    74.    
  74. Brix, Die Umgangssprachen, p. 75.

    75.    
  75. Heid, „Der Ostjude". 

    76.    
  76. For example, an interview with Rosa Roth-Zuckermann conducted on June 11, 1996 in Vienna for the "Survivors of the Shoah" project. Born in 1908 in Czernowitz, she grew up in an orthodox family - her grandfather was a follower of the Chassidic Rabbi of Sadagora - in which her education was oriented toward German culture. In response to the question of whether she considered herself an Ostjüdin, she responded with a clear "No."

    77.    
  77. Die Bukowina, p. 181. "This stunted and twisted jargon, this language of the ghetto which we now use, this is a habit that we will drop. These were forms of speech stolen by prisoners," Theodor Herzl wrote in The Jewish State, p. 244.

    78.    
  78. On the subject of the Hebrew language movement, see Gold, Geschichte der Juden in der Bukowina 2, pp. 163 ff.

    79.    
  79. On the subject of Birnbaum, see, for example, Gaisbauer, Davidstern und Doppeladler, p 44 f., 362 ff; Wistrich, The Jews of Vienna, p. 381 ff; for a biographical account of Max Diamant, see Stourzh, Galten die Juden als Nationalität Altösterreichs?, p. 81 ff.

    80.    
  80. Gold, Geschichte der Juden in der Bukowina 2, pp 34 f., 46.

    81.    
  81. Toury, Die jüdische Presse, pp. 138 - 144.

    82.    
  82. "Zigeuner" (Gypsy) is considered an insult in German, and is used primarily to refer to untrustworthy persons.

    83.    
  83. Cited in Colin/ Kittner, Versunkene Dichtung der Bukowina, p. 294.

    84.    
  84. Glanz, About my Hometown Czernowitz, p. 4.

    85.    
  85. Fichman, Before Memories Fade, p. 12.

    86.    
  86. Fichman, Before Memories Fade, p. 5, about her early youth.

    87.    
  87. Celan, Ansprache, p. 127.

    88.    
  88. Celan, Ansprache, p. 127.

    89.    
  89. Fichman, Before Memories Fade, p. 45.

    90.    
  90. Genin, Scheindl und Salomea, p.70.

    91.    
  91. Sporrer/Steiner, Simon Wiesenthal, pp.16, 28ff.

    92.    
  92. Friedman, Zornige Erinnerungen, p.6.

    93.    
  93. Interview with Josef Burg (1993), Transcript.

    94.    
  94. Held, Massenmord, pp.119-120. 

    95.    
  95. We wish to express our thanks to Mr. Hallabrin of the Bukovina Institute in Augsburg for his valuable advice and assistance; to Mel Greenwald for his English translation; to our colleagues Helga Embacher and Gerald Sprengnagel and to our interview partners — in Czernowitz: Josef Burg, Lydia Harnik and Rosa Roth-Zuckermann; in New York: Pearl Fichman.